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NUCLEON-NUCLEON INTERACTION
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) July 17 , 2015 After the discovery of charged quarks by Gell-Mann and Zweig I published my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003) by analysing the magnetic moments in nucleons which led to my discovery of considerable charge distributions in nucleons due to 9 extra charged quarks in proton and to 12 extra charged quarks in neutron. That is in the simple structure of He-4 the nuclear structure is due to the proton-neutron attraction,which is stronger that the proton-proton repulsion and the neutron-neutron repulsion. For understanding better the strong electromagnetic force in the nuclear structure you can see my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons Historically, under the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) theoretical physicists abandoned the well-established electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong nuclear theories and models which cannot lead to the correct nuclear force and nuclear structure. Despite the enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions.(1926) based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism neither was able to reveal the simplest structures of deuteron and helium. For example the great physicists Heisenberg (1932) and Yukawa (1935) under the invalid relativity and the assumptions of the uncharged neutron developed wrong theories of the so-called strong interaction which cannot lead to the nuclear structures of the simplest deuterium and helium. On the other hand in the absence of the fundamental charge-charge interaction of natural laws in order to interpret the very strong attractive nuclear force at very short distances of about 1.5/1015 m the nuclear physicists hypothesized that an unknown attractive force in the systems proton-neutron, proton-proton and neutron-neutron occurs under the fallacious Charge Independence Hypothesis. Later the experiments showed charge distributions in nucleons able to give forces of fundamental charge-charge interactions. Nevertheless under the influence of wrong nuclear theories and models physicists did not revive the natural laws of charge-charge interactions. In other words it was believed incorrectly that the nucleon-nucleon interactions could not be based on the fundamental charges of natural laws. For example after the discovery of the charged quarks (1964) Gell-Mann in 1973 under the false theories of relativity (1905) and of Yukawa mesons (1935) did not use the well-established charge-charge interaction of the discovered charged quarks but he tried to interpret the wrong strong interaction by developing his theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Note that he postulated the strange “color forces” between hypothetical massless gluons which cannot exist in accordance with my DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS . Under this physics crisis I analyzed carefully the magnetic moments of nucleons and I discovered 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give the simplest nuclear structure of the deuterium by reviving the well-established laws of electromagnetism. In other words I discovered the nucleon-nucleon interactions because they consist of charge distributions able to give the nuclear binding energy bu applying the natural laws of electromagnetism.(See my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON ) . It is of interest to note that in my paper of 2003 I showed that two neutrons and two protons at very short distances exert repulsive electromagnetic forces of short range which in some symmetrical cases provide very strong attractive electromagnetic forces of the proton-neutron interactions which overcome such repulsive forces and lead to the nuclear structure. Since the fallacious theory of the nucleon-nucleon interactions was QCD, the interactions should be calculable from the hypothetical physics of gluons. Nonetheless, the problem was quite complicated and only limited progress has been made from the first hypotheses so far. Therefore, one first tried to extract the nucleon- nucleon interaction from the nucleon-nucleon scattering data or few nucleon properties, and then one tried to use these interactions to make predictions for the nuclear many-body system. In fact, the range of the interaction is roughly the size of the atomic nuclei, namely on the order of a few fermis (fm) (1 fm = 1/1015 m).The first theory of the nucleon force was put forward by H. Yukawa, who suggested incorrectly that the interaction between two nucleons is effected by the exchange of a particle, just like the fallacious idea of interactions between the electric charges by the exchange of a false massless photon. However, because the nucleon interactions appeared to be short-ranged, the particle should have a finite mass. In fact I discovered that the charge distributions in nucleons at very short distances give electromagnetic forces of short range. Nearly a recent century of work was divided to Nucleon-Nucleon (NN) interaction issue. Meanwhile, the main NN interaction models, as frameworks to build NN potentials, were reviewed concisely. Physicists tried to include and study almost all hypothetical potentials in a similar way. For example in the “Nucleon-WIKIPEDIA” one reads: “Although it is known that the nucleon is made from three quarks, as of 2006, it is not known how to solve the equations of motion for quantum chromodynamics. Thus, the study of the low-energy properties of the nucleon are performed by means of models. The only first-principles approach available is to attempt to solve the equations of QCD numerically, using lattice QCD. This requires complicated algorithms and very powerful supercomputers.” Also in Nucleon- WIKIPEDIA” we see several contradicting models : “The Skyrmion models the nucleon as a topological soliton in a non-linear SU(2) pion field. The topological stability of the Skyrmion is interpreted as the conservation of baryon number, that is, the non-decay of the nucleon. The local topological winding number density is identified with the local baryon number density of the nucleon. With the pion isospin vector field oriented in the shape of a hedgehog space, the model is readily solvable, and is thus sometimes called the hedgehog model. The hedgehog model is able to predict low-energy parameters, such as the nucleon mass, radius and axial coupling constant, to approximately 30% of experimental values. The MIT bag model confines three non-interacting quarks to a spherical cavity, with the boundary condition that the quark vector current vanish on the boundary. The non-interacting treatment of the quarks is justified by appealing to the idea of asymptotic freedom, whereas the hard boundary condition is justified by quark confinement. Mathematically, the model vaguely resembles that of a radar cavity, with solutions to the Dirac equation standing in for solutions to the Maxwell equations and the vanishing vector current boundary condition standing for the conducting metal walls of the radar cavity. If the radius of the bag is set to the radius of the nucleon, the bag model predicts a nucleon mass that is within 30% of the actual mass. Although the basic bag model does not provide a pion-mediated interaction, it describes excellently the nucleon-nucleon forces through the 6-quark bag s-channel mechanism using the P matrix. The chiral bag model merges the MIT bag model and the Skyrmion model. In this model, a hole is punched out of the middle of the Skyrmion, and replaced with a bag model. The boundary condition is provided by the requirement of continuity of the axial vector current across the bag boundary. Very curiously, the missing part of the topological winding number (the baryon number) of the hole punched into the Skyrmion is exactly made up by the non-zero vacuum expectation value (or spectral asymmetry) of the quark fields inside the bag. As of 2006, this remarkable trade-off between topology and the spectrum of an operator does not have any grounding or explanation in the mathematical theory of Hilbert spaces and their relationship to geometry. Several other properties of the chiral bag are notable: it provides a better fit to the low energy nucleon properties, to within 5–10%, and these are almost completely independent of the chiral bag radius (as long as the radius is less than the nucleon radius). This independence of radius is referred to as the Cheshire Cat principle, after the fading to a smile of Lewis Carroll's Cheshire Cat. It is expected that a first-principles solution of the equations of QCD will demonstrate a similar duality of quark-pion descriptions.” Of course after a large number of false hypotheses today it is believed also incorrectly that the small difference between the neutron-proton and proton-proton interactions can be accounted for by assuming that an unknown attractive force occurs in the systems proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron-neutron under the fallacious idea of Charge Independence. For example in the “Charge Independence- Encyclopedia” one reads: “Charge Independence is the principle that the nuclear (strong) force between a neutron and a proton is identical to the force between two protons or two neutrons in the same orbital and spin state. As a generalization of the nuclear physics definition, the principle that the strong interactions of particles are unchanged if a particle is replaced by another particle of the same isotopic spin multiplet.” Especially today many nuclear physicists believe incorrectly that when two protons are very close together an unknown attractive nuclear force is dominant and when they are far apart it is the well known electrostatic repulsive force which is dominant in very heavy nuclei. In fact I discovered that in both cases the proton-proton and the neutron-neutron systems at short distances give repulsive electromagnetic forces of short range. Obviously, most nuclei are stable and thus there must exist an attractive electromagnetic force between a proton and neutron which binds them together. This force known as the nuclear force is an attractive electromagnetic force of short range that acts between protons and neutrons at the short distances between them in the simplest structure of deuteron. (about 1.5 / 1015 m). Within the nucleus, where the protons and neutrons are very close together, the electromagnetic nuclear force dominates the repulsive force betweenproton-proton and neutron-neutron interactions and holds the nucleus together like the forces of ionic crystals. However in heavy nuclei the long ranged repulsive proton-proton forces overcome the short ranged forces of proton-neutron attractions. On the other hand in neutron stars the gravitational force of long range overcomes the electromagnetic repulsive neutron-neutron force of short range. Also it is unfortunate that physicists today influenced by the invalid relativity believe incorrectly that the binding energy of the nucleus is due to the fallacious idea that the mass defect turns into the energy. In fact , I discovered that the binding energy between a proton and a neutron during the electromagnetic interaction turns into the energy of generated photons and the so-called mass defect turns into the mass of the photon m = hν/c2 in accordance with the two conservation laws of energy and mass. (See my E = mc2 IS CONFUSING and my PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS). It is observed that the mass of any nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the individual constituent nucleons which make it up. On the other hand in order to separate the nucleons, energy must be supplied to the nucleus. This is usually accomplished by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles (atom smashing). It is well known that too many protons relative to the number of neutrons in a nuclide results in instability. This is explained by the mutual electrostatic repulsion of long range of protons beyond a certain distance. However today many physicists hypothesize that there is a strong force attraction between protons but this attraction drops off rapidly with separation distance. In fact, for larger nuclei some of the protons are necessarily at distances from each other where the electrostatic repulsion of long range overwhelms the strong short-ranged attraction of proton-neutron systems. Therefore for stability a nuclide needs an excess of neutrons to offset the electrostatic repulsion of the protons. This is all perfectly plausible but what accounts for the fact that too many neutrons compared to the number of protons also results in instability? This is one element of the evidence that neutrons repel each other. CONCLUSIONS It is indeed unfortunate that the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron led to the abandonment of electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong theories of nuclear force and nuclear structure. Thus, after my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON the application of the well-established electromagnetic laws on the charges of extra 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron led to the correct structure of deuteron. The deuteron is a stable p-n system composed of a proton and a neutron with parallel spin along the radial direction giving a binding energy of 2.2246 MeV. It's stability is remarkable since the free neutron is unstable, undergoing beta decay with a half life of 10.3 minutes. Especially the deuteron binding energy of -2.2246 MeV implies that it is stable. The free neutron yields an energy of 1.29 MeV in beta decay, but the 2.2246 MeV binding energy of the deuteron prevents its decay. The stability of the deuteron is an important part of the story of the universe. In the Big Bang model it is presumed that in early stages there were equal numbers of neutrons and protons since the available energies were much higher than the 1.29 MeV required to convert a proton to a neutron under the absorption of energetic antineutrinos. When the temperature dropped to the point where neutrons could no longer be produced from protons, the decay of free neutrons began to diminish their population. Those which combined with protons to form deuterons were protected from further decay. This is fortunate for us because if all the neutrons had decayed, there would be no universe as we know it, and we wouldn't be here. (See my OUR EARLY UNIVERSE ). On the other hand in heavier nuclei like in helium the very strong attractive electromagnetic forces of the p-n systems overcome the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the p-p and n-n systems like the forces of an ionic crystal. In other words I discovered that the so-called “ Charge Independence Hypothesis” is an invalid idea which did much to retard the progress of nuclear physics. In fact, the nuclei consist of nucleons which provide charge distributions able to give repulsive forces in proton-proton and neutron-neutron interactions, while the proton-neutron interactions give attractive forces which in symmetrical cases overcome the repulsions and lead to the nuclear structure. In general the nucleon-nucleon interactions give attractions in the p-n systems and repulsions in the p-p and n-n systems. Category:Fundamental physics concepts